Introduction: The Origin of the Discussion
Last week, we published an article on digital sovereignty, which unexpectedly went viral. Many of the reactions were justified: the discussion now mainly revolves around software, while hardware is at least as crucial. Without open and transparent hardware, we remain dependent on a handful of players, with all the associated risks. But how did we get here in the first place?
Europe once had a thriving computer industry. Companies like Siemens, Philips, and Tulip Computers not only produced hardware but also legendary machines. Consider the Tulip 386DX, which, through clever design choices, offered more free memory than competitors running the same software (HomeComputerMuseum, 2026). Or the Philips MSX and P2000, which inspired a whole generation of programmers and tech enthusiasts (Wikipedia, 2026a); (MSX Wiki, 2026). These machines were not only technically impressive but also symbols of European innovation and independence. Yet, they gradually disappeared from the scene, partly due to the rise of American and Asian giants.
Today, dependence on closed hardware is greater than ever. However, there is hope: open architectures like RISC-V and initiatives around transparent production offer new opportunities. In this article, we delve into the openness of processor architectures (x86, ARM, RISC-V) and the role of players such as Qualcomm, Mediatek, and Apple. How open are their designs really? And what does this mean for our digital future?
History: Europe as a Hardware Pioneer
In the 1980s and 1990s, Europe was a hotbed of computer innovation. Philips, with the MSX and P2000, was a major player in the home market (Wikipedia, 2026a); (MSX Wiki, 2026), while Tulip Computers carved out a unique position with their IBM-compatible PCs. The Tulip 386DX, for example, was famous for its efficient memory management, giving users more free memory than competitors with the same processor (HomeComputerMuseum, 2026). These machines prove that Europe could not only keep up but also lead in hardware design.
Nevertheless, Europe lost ground. The economies of scale of American and Asian manufacturers, combined with a lack of coordinated European strategy, led to a gradual retreat. The lesson? Without your own production capacity and open standards, you become dependent. A lesson that is more urgent today than ever.
The Current State of Hardware: Closed vs. Open
x86: The Closed Standard
The x86 architecture, dominated by Intel and AMD, is the de facto standard for PCs. While the instruction set is openly documented, the designs and manufacturing processes are not. This makes Europe dependent on a handful of manufacturers, with all the geopolitical risks that entails.
ARM: Open Instruction Set, Closed Implementations
ARM is an interesting case. The instruction set is open, but the actual chip designs (e.g., from Qualcomm and Apple) are closed. This means you can design an ARM chip, but the most advanced implementations are in the hands of a limited number of companies (Wikipedia, 2026b).
RISC-V: The Promise of True Openness
RISC-V is the only fully open processor architecture. No licensing fees, no closed designs. This allows companies and governments to develop their own chips without depending on American or Asian players. Initiatives such as the EU Chips Act and investments in RISC-V (e.g., by Siemens and Philips) show that Europe is taking the lessons from the past seriously (European Commission, 2023); (IT Pro, 2025).
| Architecture | Instruction Set Openness | Implementation Openness | Example Users |
|---|---|---|---|
| x86 | Open (documented) | Closed | Intel, AMD |
| ARM | Open | Closed | Qualcomm, Apple, Mediatek |
| RISC-V | Open | Open | SiFive, Alibaba, DeepComputing |
The Role of Qualcomm, Mediatek, and Apple
- Qualcomm and Mediatek dominate the mobile market with ARM-based chips. Their designs are closed, meaning Europe remains dependent on their roadmaps and security updates.
- Apple goes a step further: their M-series chips are not only closed but also deeply integrated into their ecosystem. This makes it almost impossible to build independent hardware compatible with Apple's software.
The question is: how can we break this dependence? RISC-V offers a way out, but it requires significant investments in design and production. Fortunately, we are seeing the first steps, such as the European RISC-V Alliance and initiatives to establish our own production facilities (IT Pro, 2025); (European Commission, 2021).
Conclusion: Toward a Sovereign Future
The discussion about digital sovereignty must not focus solely on software. Hardware is the foundation on which everything runs. Europe has a rich history of hardware innovation, and with RISC-V and new production initiatives, there is an opportunity to reclaim that position. But we must act now: invest in open architectures, build our own production capacity, and foster collaboration between governments, businesses, and knowledge institutions.
The lesson from the past is clear: whoever does not control their hardware does not control their future. Let's take this lesson to heart this time.
References
- European Commission (2023). Digital sovereignty: European Chips Act enters into force. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/digital-sovereignty-european-chips-act-enters-force (accessed 31-03-2026).
- — (2021). Recommendations and roadmap for European sovereignty on open source hardware, software and RISC-V Technologies. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/recommendations-and-roadmap-european-sovereignty-open-source-hardware-software-and-risc-v (accessed 31-03-2026).
- HomeComputerMuseum (2026). Tulip. https://www.homecomputermuseum.nl/en/collectie/tulip/ (accessed 31-03-2026).
- IT Pro (2025). RISC-V could be the key to European supercomputer sovereignty. https://www.itpro.com/business/risc-v-could-be-the-key-to-european-supercomputer-sovereignty (accessed 31-03-2026).
- MSX Wiki (2026). Category:Philips. https://www.msx.org/wiki/Category:Philips (accessed 31-03-2026).
- Wikipedia (2026a). Philips P2000. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips_P2000 (accessed 31-03-2026).
- — (2026b). RISC-V. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISC-V (accessed 31-03-2026).
Introduction: The Origin of the Discussion
Last week, we published an article on digital sovereignty, which unexpectedly went viral. Many of the reactions were justified: the discussion now mainly revolves around software, while hardware is at least as crucial. Without open and transparent hardware, we remain dependent on a handful of players, with all the associated risks. But how did we get here in the first place?
Europe once had a thriving computer industry. Companies like Siemens, Philips, and Tulip Computers not only produced hardware but also legendary machines. Consider the Tulip 386DX, which, through clever design choices, offered more free memory than competitors running the same software (HomeComputerMuseum, 2026). Or the Philips MSX and P2000, which inspired a whole generation of programmers and tech enthusiasts (Wikipedia, 2026a); (MSX Wiki, 2026). These machines were not only technically impressive but also symbols of European innovation and independence. Yet, they gradually disappeared from the scene, partly due to the rise of American and Asian giants.
Today, dependence on closed hardware is greater than ever. However, there is hope: open architectures like RISC-V and initiatives around transparent production offer new opportunities. In this article, we delve into the openness of processor architectures (x86, ARM, RISC-V) and the role of players such as Qualcomm, Mediatek, and Apple. How open are their designs really? And what does this mean for our digital future?
History: Europe as a Hardware Pioneer
In the 1980s and 1990s, Europe was a hotbed of computer innovation. Philips, with the MSX and P2000, was a major player in the home market (Wikipedia, 2026a); (MSX Wiki, 2026), while Tulip Computers carved out a unique position with their IBM-compatible PCs. The Tulip 386DX, for example, was famous for its efficient memory management, giving users more free memory than competitors with the same processor (HomeComputerMuseum, 2026). These machines prove that Europe could not only keep up but also lead in hardware design.
Nevertheless, Europe lost ground. The economies of scale of American and Asian manufacturers, combined with a lack of coordinated European strategy, led to a gradual retreat. The lesson? Without your own production capacity and open standards, you become dependent. A lesson that is more urgent today than ever.
The Current State of Hardware: Closed vs. Open
x86: The Closed Standard
The x86 architecture, dominated by Intel and AMD, is the de facto standard for PCs. While the instruction set is openly documented, the designs and manufacturing processes are not. This makes Europe dependent on a handful of manufacturers, with all the geopolitical risks that entails.
ARM: Open Instruction Set, Closed Implementations
ARM is an interesting case. The instruction set is open, but the actual chip designs (e.g., from Qualcomm and Apple) are closed. This means you can design an ARM chip, but the most advanced implementations are in the hands of a limited number of companies (Wikipedia, 2026b).
RISC-V: The Promise of True Openness
RISC-V is the only fully open processor architecture. No licensing fees, no closed designs. This allows companies and governments to develop their own chips without depending on American or Asian players. Initiatives such as the EU Chips Act and investments in RISC-V (e.g., by Siemens and Philips) show that Europe is taking the lessons from the past seriously (European Commission, 2023); (IT Pro, 2025).
| Architecture | Instruction Set Openness | Implementation Openness | Example Users |
|---|---|---|---|
| x86 | Open (documented) | Closed | Intel, AMD |
| ARM | Open | Closed | Qualcomm, Apple, Mediatek |
| RISC-V | Open | Open | SiFive, Alibaba, DeepComputing |
The Role of Qualcomm, Mediatek, and Apple
- Qualcomm and Mediatek dominate the mobile market with ARM-based chips. Their designs are closed, meaning Europe remains dependent on their roadmaps and security updates.
- Apple goes a step further: their M-series chips are not only closed but also deeply integrated into their ecosystem. This makes it almost impossible to build independent hardware compatible with Apple's software.
The question is: how can we break this dependence? RISC-V offers a way out, but it requires significant investments in design and production. Fortunately, we are seeing the first steps, such as the European RISC-V Alliance and initiatives to establish our own production facilities (IT Pro, 2025); (European Commission, 2021).
Conclusion: Toward a Sovereign Future
The discussion about digital sovereignty must not focus solely on software. Hardware is the foundation on which everything runs. Europe has a rich history of hardware innovation, and with RISC-V and new production initiatives, there is an opportunity to reclaim that position. But we must act now: invest in open architectures, build our own production capacity, and foster collaboration between governments, businesses, and knowledge institutions.
The lesson from the past is clear: whoever does not control their hardware does not control their future. Let's take this lesson to heart this time.
References
- European Commission (2023). Digital sovereignty: European Chips Act enters into force. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/digital-sovereignty-european-chips-act-enters-force (accessed 31-03-2026).
- — (2021). Recommendations and roadmap for European sovereignty on open source hardware, software and RISC-V Technologies. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/recommendations-and-roadmap-european-sovereignty-open-source-hardware-software-and-risc-v (accessed 31-03-2026).
- HomeComputerMuseum (2026). Tulip. https://www.homecomputermuseum.nl/en/collectie/tulip/ (accessed 31-03-2026).
- IT Pro (2025). RISC-V could be the key to European supercomputer sovereignty. https://www.itpro.com/business/risc-v-could-be-the-key-to-european-supercomputer-sovereignty (accessed 31-03-2026).
- MSX Wiki (2026). Category:Philips. https://www.msx.org/wiki/Category:Philips (accessed 31-03-2026).
- Wikipedia (2026a). Philips P2000. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips_P2000 (accessed 31-03-2026).
- — (2026b). RISC-V. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISC-V (accessed 31-03-2026).